South East Asia Southeast Asia is a subregion of Asia, consisting of the countries that are geographically south of China, east of India and north of Australia. The region lies on the intersection of geological plates, with heavy seismic and volcanic activity and Oceania Oceania is a geographical, and often geopolitical, region consisting of numerous lands—mostly islands in the Pacific Ocean and vicinity. The term "Oceania" was coined in 1831 by French explorer Dumont d'Urville.[dubious – discuss] The term is also sometimes used to denote a continent comprising Australia Continent and proximate

• Malaysia ^ b. The current terminology as per government policy is Bahasa Malaysia but legislation continues to refer to the official language as Bahasa Melayu (literally Malay language). English may continue to be used for some official purposes under the National Language Act 1967. The Malaysian New Economic Policy The Malaysian New Economic Policy , is an ambitious and controversial socio-economic restructuring affirmative action program launched by the Malaysian government in 1971 under the then Prime Minister Tun Abdul Razak. The NEP ended in 1990, and was succeeded by the National Development Policy in 1991. Although the NEP was hailed in some quarters or NEP serves as a form of affirmative action. Malaysia is the only other country (other one being South Africa) in the world which provides affirmative action to the majority because in general, the Malays have lower income than the Chinese who have traditionally been involved businesses and industries.^[16] Malaysia is a multiethnic country, with Malays making up the majority of close to 52% of the population. About 30% of the population are Malaysians of Chinese descent, while Malaysians of Indian descent Malaysian Indians are a group of Malaysians largely descended from those who migrated from southern India during the British colonization of Malaya. Prior to British colonization, Tamils had been conspicuous in the archipelago much earlier, especially since the period of the powerful South India kingdom of the Cholas in the 11th century. By that comprise about 8% of the population. Government policy provides preferential placement for ethnic Malays, and 95% of all new intakes for the army, hospital nurses, police, and other government institutions are Malays. As of 2004, only 7% of all government servants are ethnic Chinese, a drop from 30% in 1960. All eight of the directors of the national petroleum company, Petronas Petronas, short for Petroliam Nasional Berhad, is a Malaysian-owned oil and gas company that was founded on August 17, 1974. Wholly owned by the Government, the corporation is vested with the entire oil and gas resources in Malaysia and is entrusted with the responsibility of developing and adding value to these resources. Petronas is ranked among, are Malays, and only 3% of Petronas employees are Chinese. Additionally, 95% of all government contracts are awarded to ethnic Malays.^[17] (See also Bumiputra Bumiputera or Bumiputra is a Malay term widely used in Malaysia, embracing ethnic Malays, Javanese, Bugis, Minang and other indigenous ethnic groups such as the Orang Asli in Peninsular Malaysia and the tribal peoples in Sabah and Sarawak. This term comes from the Sanskrit word Bhumiputra, which can be translated literally as "son of earth&) The mean income for Malays, Chinese and Indians in 1957/58 were 134, 288 and 228 respectively. In 1967/68 it was 154, 329 and 245, and in 1970 it was 170, 390 and 300. Mean income disparity ratio for Chinese/Malays rose from 2.1 in 1957/58 to 2.3 in 1970, whereas for Indians/Malays the disparity ratio also rose from 1.7 to 1.8 in the same period.^[18] The Malays viewed Independence as restoring their proper place in their own country's socioeconomic order while the non-Malays were opposing government efforts to advance Malay political primacy and economic welfare. The rising tension and resentment of the Malays for the Chinese and vice versa culminated in the vicious riots of 13 May 1969.^[19]

• New Zealand New Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses , and numerous smaller islands, most notably Stewart Island/Rakiura and the Chatham Islands. The indigenous Māori language name for New Zealand is Aotearoa, commonly translated as The Land of the Long White Cloud. The Realm of New Zealand also. Individuals of Māori The Māori are the indigenous Polynesian people of New Zealand (Aotearoa). They arrived from East Polynesia in several waves at some time before the year 1300, settled and developed a distinct culture. Their language is very closely related to Cook Islands Māori and Tahitian or other Polynesian Polynesia is a subregion of Oceania, comprising a large grouping of over 1,000 islands scattered over the central and southern Pacific Ocean. The people who inhabit the islands of Polynesia are termed Polynesians and they share many similar traits including language, culture and beliefs descent are often afforded improved access to university courses, or have scholarships earmarked specifically for them.^[20]

Europe

• Finland. In certain university education programs, including legal and medical education, there are quotas for Swedish-speaking applicants. The aim of the quotas is to guarantee that a sufficient number of Swedish speaking professionals are educated, thus safeguarding the linguistic rights of the Swedish-speaking Finns. The quota system has met with criticism from the Finnish speaking majority, some of whom consider the system unfair. In addition to these linguistic quotas, women may get preferential treatment in recruitment for certain public sector jobs if there is a gender imbalance in the field.

• France. No distinctions based on race, religion or sex are allowed under the 1958 French Constitution.^{[citation needed]} Since the 1980s, a French version of affirmative action based on neighborhood is in place for primary and secondary education. Some schools, in neighborhoods labeled "Prioritary Education Zones", are granted more funds than the others. Students from these schools also benefit from special policies in certain institutions (such as Sciences Po).^{[citation needed]} The French Ministry of Defense tried in 1990 to give more easily higher ranks and driving licenses to young French soldiers with North-African ancestry. After a strong protest by a young French lieutenant^[21] in the Ministry of Defense newspaper ("Armées d'aujourd'hui"), this driving license and rank project was canceled. After the Sarkozy election, a new attempt in favour of Arabian-French students was made but Sarkozy did not gain enough political support to change the French constitution. However, highly ranked French schools do implement affirmative action in that they are obligated to take a certain amount of students from impoverished families.^[22]

• Germany. Article 3 of the German basic law provides for equal rights of all people regardless of sex, race or social background. There are programs stating that if men and women have equal qualifications, women have to be preferred for a job; moreover, the handicapped should be preferred to healthy people. This is typical for all positions in state and university service as of 2007, typically using the phrase "We try to increase diversity in this line of work". In recent years, there has been a long public debate about whether to issue programs that would grant women a privileged access to jobs in order to fight discrimination. Germany's Left Party brought up the discussion about affirmative action in Germany's school system. According to Stefan Zillich, quotas should be "a possibility" to help working class children who did not do well in school gain access to a Gymnasium (University-preparatory school).^[23] Headmasters of Gymnasien have objected, saying that this type of policy would "be a disservice" to poor children.^[24] In 2009 the Berlin senate decided that Berlin's Gymnasium should no longer be allowed to handpick all of their students. It was ruled that while Gymnasien should be able to pick 70 % to 65 % of their students, the other places at the Gymnasien are to be allocated by lottery. Every child will be able to enter the lottery, no matter how he or she performed in primary school. It is hoped that this policy will increase the number of working class students attending a Gymnasium.^[25] The Left proposed that Berlin Gymnasien should no longer be allowed to expel students who perform poorly so that the students who won a Gymnasium place in the lottery have a fair chance of graduating from that school.^[25] It is not clear yet if Berlin's senate will decide in favour of The Lefts proposal. There is also a discussion going on if affirmative action should be employed to help the children and grandchildren of the so called Gastarbeiter gain better access to German universities. One prominent proponent of this was Lord Ralf Dahrendorf^[26] It is argued that the Gastarbeiter willingly came to Germany to help build the industry and this should be honored.

• Norway. In all public limited companies (PCL) boards, either gender should be represented by 40%.^[27] This affects roughly 400 companies.

• Republic of Macedonia. Minorities, most notably Albanians, are allocated quotas for access to state universities, as well as in civil public services.^{[citation needed]}
• Romania. Roma people (gipsy) are allocated quotas for access to state universities.

• Slovakia. The Constitutional Court declared in October 2005 that affirmative action i.e. "providing advantages for people of an ethnic or racial minority group" as being against its Constitution.^[28]

• Sweden. Special treatments of certain groups are commonplace in Sweden. Leveraging of the opportunities of these groups is encouraged by the state. One example is the police, who give women and people from other cultural and ethnic backgrounds concessions when it comes to testing for entrance to the police academy.

• United Kingdom. In the UK, any discrimination, quotas or favouritism on the grounds of sex, race and ethnicity is generally illegal in both education and employment.^[20][29] Specific exceptions include:
  • The 1998 Good Friday Agreement required that the Police Service of Northern Ireland recruit equal numbers of Catholics and Protestants in order to eliminate the service's perceived bias towards Protestants.
  • The Labour Party passed the Sex Discrimination (Election Candidates) Act 2002, allowing them to use all-women shortlists to select more women as election candidates.

South Africa

The Apartheid government favoured white-owned companies and as a result, the majority of companies in South Africa were, and still are owned by white people. The aforementioned policies achieved the desired results, but in the process they marginalised and excluded black people. A notable exception is the high number of businesses owned and operated by people of Indian descent - keen business people who thrived even under Apartheid laws due to their entrepreneurship and the political difficulties faced by them. Many people of Chinese ancestry in South Africa, also classified as "black" under the Apartheid government, also thrived through owning and operating their own businesses.

When the new majority government came to power in 1994, led by the ANC, they decided to implement an affirmative action campaign to correct previous imbalances. As such, the previously disenfranchised majority and minority groups are being supported by forcing the formerly privileged white minority group to implement certain policies. These policies include quotas regarding how much of the procurement is from non-white companies, how much of the equity is owned by non-whites, how many employees are non-white and what position the non-whites have.

The Employment Equity Act and the Broad Based Black Economic Empowerment Act aim to promote and achieve equality in the workplace (in South Africa termed "equity"), by not only advancing people from designated groups but also specifically dis-advancing the others. Those specifically hindered are the white minority. By legal definition, the designated groups who are to be advanced in society include all people of color, white women, people with disabilities, and people from rural areas. The term "black economic empowerment" is somewhat of a misnomer, therefore, because the acts cover empowerment of any member of the designated groups, regardless of race. However, government’s employment legislation reserves 80% of new jobs for black people and favours black-owned companies.^[30] It is quota-based, with specific required outcomes. By a relatively complex scoring system, which allows for some flexibility in the manner in which each company meets its legal commitments, each company is required to meet minimum requirements in terms of representation by previously disadvantaged groups. The matters covered include equity ownership, representation at employee and management level (up to board of director level), procurement from black-owned businesses and social investment programs, amongst others. In 2008, the High Court in South Africa has ruled that Chinese South Africans are to be reclassified as black people. As a result of this ruling, ethnically Chinese citizens will be able to benefit from government Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) policies.^[31]

There is growing discontent in South Africa that the Broad Based Black Economic Empowerment Act has only enriched a select few black people in the country, generally those who were well-connected within the ANC so as to benefit from smart BEE deals and tender awarding, often thought to border on corruption. The same black people appear further enriched in each large BEE deal made in South Africa.

Many articles have been written in this regard however the ruling ANC party has to date not altered this policy, with criticism of the policy being claimed to be a racist attack on black people becoming wealthier:

• Mail & Guardian ^[32]
• MoneyWeb ^[33]
• MoneyWeb ^[34]
• Fin24 ^[34]
• Business Report ^[35]
• Financial Mail ^[36]
• Mail & Guardian ^[37]

A black author, Moeletsi Mbeki, published a book entitled 'Architects of Poverty' in which he describes how BEE has failed most South Africans by creating a small group of black elitist capitalists made up of ANC politicians, whilst hindering the emergence of black entrepreneurship.

Many South Africans believe that Affirmative Action is in its essence a racist policy, no different to those policies of the Apartheid government. Academic papers have been published on the topic, including how the perpetuation of racial identity in post-Apartheid South Africa is contrary to the building of a non-racial South Africa. [1].

Professor Marinus Wiechers has written how affirmative action is a breeding ground for racism and racist sentiments.^[38]

Many white people are being marginalised through the government's affirmative action policies which see most large corporate companies forced to have a high percentage of their staff at all levels be black. This results in companies having policies in place to ensure that all new recruits are non-white and in many cases black only. White people, whether skilled or not, are excluded from many employment opportunities based purely on the color of their skin. This is seen by many to be racist in itself.

Israel

Israel has affirmative action for the Aliyah from Ethiopia (Jewish Ethiopians), with regard to housing, education and integration into employment.^[39]

Alternative views

A 2009 Quinnipiac University survey found American voters opposed to the application of affirmative action to gay people, 65 over 27 percent. African-Americans were found to be in favor by 54 over 38 percent.^[40]

Debate

Support

The principle of affirmative action is to promote societal equality through the preferential treatment of socioeconomically disadvantaged people. Often, these people are disadvantaged for historical reasons, such as oppression or slavery.^[41] According to a poll taken by USA Today, most Americans support affirmative action for women; with minorities, it is more split.^[42] Men are only slightly more likely to support affirmative action for women; though a majority of both do.^[42] However, a slight majority of Americans do believe that affirmative action goes beyond ensuring access and goes into the realm of preferential treatment.^[42]

Opposition

Opponents of Affirmative Action such as George Sher believe that affirmative action devalues the accomplishments of people who are chosen based on the social group to which they belong rather than their qualifications.^[43] Opponents also contend that affirmative action devalues the accomplishments of all those who belong to groups it is intended to help, therefore making affirmative action counterproductive.^[43] Opponents,^[44] who sometimes say that affirmative action is "reverse discrimination", further claim that affirmative action has undesirable side-effects in addition to failing to achieve its goals. They argue that it hinders reconciliation, replaces old wrongs with new wrongs, undermines the achievements of minorities, and encourages individuals to identify themselves as disadvantaged, even if they are not. It may increase racial tension and benefit the more privileged people within minority groups at the expense of the least fortunate within majority groups (such as lower-class whites).^[45] American economist, social and political commentator, Dr. Thomas Sowell identified some negative results of race-based affirmative action in his book, Affirmative Action Around the World: An Empirical Study.^[46] Sowell writes that affirmative action policies encourage non-preferred groups to designate themselves as members of preferred groups (i.e., primary beneficiaries of affirmative action) to take advantage of group preference policies; that they tend to benefit primarily the most fortunate among the preferred group (e.g., upper and middle class blacks), often to the detriment of the least fortunate among the non-preferred groups (e.g., poor whites or Asians); that they reduce the incentives of both the preferred and non-preferred to perform at their best — the former because doing so is unnecessary and the latter because it can prove futile — thereby resulting in net losses for society as a whole; and that they increase animosity toward preferred groups.

See also

• Achievement gap
• Affirmative action in the United States
• Affirmative action bake sale
• Angry white male
• Bumiputra
• Civil and political rights
• Discrimination
• Diversity (business)
• Economic discrimination
• Employment equity (Canada)

Notes

1. ^ ^{a b} "Executive Order 11246--Equal employment opportunity". The Federal Register. http://www.archives.gov/federal-register/codification/executive-order/11246.html. Retrieved 5/2/2010.
2. ^ ^{a b c} "Affirmative Action". Staford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. April 1, 2009. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/affirmative-action/.
3. ^ "Affirmative Action: History and Rationale". Clinton Administration's Affirmative Action Review: Report to the President. July 19, 1995. http://clinton2.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OP/html/aa/aa02.html.
4. ^ Sowell, Thomas (2004). Affirmative Action Around the World: An Empirical Study, Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-10199-6
5. ^ United Nations Committee on Human Rights, General Comment 18 on Non-discrimination, Paragraph 10
6. ^ Plummer, Robert. "Black Brazil Seeks a Better Future." BBC News, São Paulo 25 September 2006. 16 November 2006
7. ^ "DEM entra com ADPF contra cotas raciais"
8. ^ GNWT - Human Resources - Affirmative Action
9. ^ "Executive Order 10925 - Establishing The President's Committee On Equal Employment Opportunity". U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. http://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/history/35th/thelaw/eo-10925.html. Retrieved 5/2/2010.
10. ^ "Federal Employment Discrimination Laws". EmployeeIssues.com. http://employeeissues.com/discrimination_laws.htm. Retrieved May 18, 2010.
11. ^ Indy fire-fighters sue city, charge bias
12. ^ Highlights of the 2002-2003 Supreme Court Term
13. ^ Stephanie Chen (May 26, 2010). "Does your name shape your destiny?". CNN. http://edition.cnn.com/2010/LIVING/05/26/naming.names.importance/?hpt=Sbin.
14. ^ Graduate Student Admission Ordainment - Ministry of Education, PRC
15. ^ Ethnic and Religious Affairs Commission of Guangdong Province
16. ^ Encyclopedia of the Nations, "Malaysia Poverty and Wealth"
17. ^ Bumiputra Policy in Malaysia
18. ^ Perumal, M., 1989, 'Economic Growth and Income Inequality in Malaysia, 1957–1984', Singapore. Economic Review, Vol.34, No.2, pp.33–46.
19. ^ Income Inequality and Poverty in Malaysia by Shireen Mardziah Hashim
20. ^ ^{a b} UK Commission for Racial Equality website "Affirmative action around the world"
21. ^ Jean-Pierre Steinhofer: "Beur ou ordinaire" in "Armee d'Ajourd'hui, 1991.
22. ^ "Le Plan Sarkozy"
23. ^ Susanne Vieth-Entus (29. Dezember 2008): "Sozialquote: Berliner Gymnasien sollen mehr Schüler aus armen Familien aufnehmen". Der Tagesspiegel
24. ^ Martin Klesmann (23. February 2009). "'Kinder aus Neukölln würden sich nicht integrieren lassen' - Ein Politiker und ein Schulleiter streiten über Sozialquoten an Gymnasien". Berliner Zeitung
25. ^ ^{a b} Heinz-Peter Meidinger: "Berliner Schullotterie". Profil 07-08/2009 (August 24th. 2009)
26. ^ Christine Prußky: "Zuwanderer an die Unis - Soziologe Ralf Dahrendorf fordert Migrantenquote"
27. ^ http://www.lovdata.no/all/tl-19970613-045-032.html#6-3
28. ^ Slovakia bans positive discrimination
29. ^ Personneltoday.com "Is there a case for positive discrimination?"
30. ^ Simon Wood meets the people who lost most when Mandela won in South Africa
31. ^ We agree that you are black, South African court tells Chinese, The Times
32. ^ BEE's Glass Slipper
33. ^ http://www.moneyweb.co.za/mw/view/mw/en/page292679?oid=346519&sn=2009+Detail+no+image&pid=295799
34. ^ ^{a b} http://www.fin24.com/articles/default/display_article.aspx?ArticleId=1518-24_2564628
35. ^ http://www.busrep.co.za/index.php?fArticleId=5340048
36. ^ http://www.financialmail.co.za/projects05/topempowerment/stories/zzdbee.htm
37. ^ http://www.mg.co.za/article/2009-11-20-manyi-vows-to-get-tough-over-bee
38. ^ http://www.politicsweb.co.za/politicsweb/view/politicsweb/en/page71616/page71619?oid=136413&sn=Detail
39. ^ http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Archive/Communiques/1996/The%20Absorption%20of%20Ethiopian%20Immigrants%20in%20Israel%20-
40. ^ U.S. Voters Disagree 3-1 With Sotomayor On Key Case. Quinnipiac University. Published June 3, 2009.
41. ^ Christophe Jaffrelot , India's Silent Revolution : The rise of lower castes in northern India, pg. 321 2003
42. ^ ^{a b c} . http://www.usatoday.com/news/polls/tables/live/0623.htm.
43. ^ ^{a b} Sher, George, "Preferential Hiring", in Tom Regan (ed.), Just Business: New Introductory Essays In Business Ethics, Philadelphia, Temple University Press, 1983, p.40.
44. ^ American Civil Rights Institute
45. ^ Cultural Whiplash: Unforeseen Consequences of America's Crusade Against Racial Discrimination / Patrick Garry (2006) ISBN 1-58182-569-2
46. ^ ISBN 0-300-10199-6, 2004

References

• Bidmead, Andrew 'The Last of England' Legend Press 2010 ISBN 978-1-907461-33-0
• The Next Twenty-five Years: Affirmative Action in Higher Education in the United States and South Africa David L. Featherman, Martin Hall, and Marvin Krislov, editors. Forewords by: Mary Sue Coleman, President of the University of Michigan and Njabulo Ndebele, Former Vice-Chancellor and Principal of the University of Cape Town. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 2009.
• Golland, David Hamilton, “Constructing Affirmative Action: Federal Contract Compliance and the Building Construction Trades, 1956–1973” (PhD dissertation City University of New York, 2008). Order No. DA3325474.
• Susanne Vieth-Entus, "Sozialquote: Berliner Gymnasien sollen mehr Schüler aus armen Familien aufnehmen" (29 December 2008) Der Tagesspiegel
• Marc Bossuyt, 'United Nations Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights (17 June 2002) Commission on Human Rights, Economic and Social Council

External links

• Does the success of Barack Obama mean we no longer need affirmative action? NOW on PBS investigates
• "Affirmative action" article in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Washington Post Section on Affirmative Action
• Substantive Equality, Positive Action and Roma Rights in the European Union, Report by Minority Rights Group International
• An interview with Professor Randall Kennedy about the presidency of Barack Obama and affirmative action Clifford Armion for La Clé des langues.

Categories: Education issues | History of education | Education policy | Discrimination | Politics and race | Social inequality | Prejudice and discrimination | Race-related legal issues | Affirmative action