CERD The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination is a United Nations convention. A second-generation human rights instrument, the Convention commits its members to the elimination of racial discrimination and the promotion of understanding among all races. Controversially, the Convention also requires its · CEDAW The Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women is an international convention adopted in 1979 by the United Nations General Assembly. Described as an international bill of rights for women, it came into force on 3 September 1981. The United States is the only developed nation that has not ratified the CEDAW. Several · CDE Convention against Discrimination in Education is a convention adopted by UNESCO in 1960 aiming to combat segregation and discrimination in the field of education. It has entered into force in 1962. There is an additional Protocol Instituting a Conciliation and Good offices Commission, adopted in 1962 and entering force in 1968. As of March, 2010, · ILO C111 Discrimination Convention, 1958 is an International Labour Organization Convention · ILO C100 Equal Remuneration Convention, 1951 is an International Labour Organization Convention · ILO C169 Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 is an International Labour Organization Convention, also known as ILO-convention 169, or C169. It is the major binding international convention concerning indigenous peoples, and a forerunner of the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples · Protocol No. 12 ECHR Protocol No. 12 to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms is an anti-discrimination treaty of the Council of Europe. It was adopted on November 4, 2000, in Rome and entered into force on April 1, 2005, after tenth ratification. As of February, 2010, it has 17 member states and 20 signatories (from 47 CoE member

Adultcentrism CERD · CEDAW · CDE · ILO C111 · ILO C100 · ILO C169 · Protocol No. 12 ECHR · Androcentrism Androcentrism is the practice, conscious or otherwise, of placing male human beings or the masculine point of view at the center of one's view of the world and its culture and history. The related adjective is androcentric, while the opposite of androcentrism is gynocentrism Anthropocentrism Anthropocentrism is a concept that human beings may regard themselves as the central and most significant entities in the universe, or that they assess reality through an exclusively human perspective. The term can be used interchangeably with humanocentrism, while the first concept can also be referred to as human supremacy. The views are · Afrocentrism Afrocentrism, Afrocentricity, or Africentrism is a world view which emphasizes the importance of African people, taken as a single group and often equated with "Black people", in culture, philosophy, and history. The roots of Afrocentrism lay in a reaction to the repression of Black people throughout the Western world in the 19th century Americentrism Americentrism is a pejorative term referring to the ethnocentric practice of viewing the world from an explicitly American perspective, with an implied belief, either consciously or subconsciously, in the preeminence of American culture · Black supremacy Crime of apartheid · CERD · CEDAW · CDE · ILO C111 · ILO C100 · ILO C169 · Protocol No. 12 ECHR Chronocentrism It is in one sense the interpretation of events and actions of other times within the moral context of one's own time. For example, a slave owner in the 1700s who treated his slaves like free estate workers and arranged for them to be freed at his death was unusually enlightened when viewed within the proper context of his time, but someone guilty · Economic Crime of apartheid · CERD · CEDAW · CDE · ILO C111 · ILO C100 · Protocol No. 12 ECHR Ethnocentrism Ethnocentrism is the tendency to believe that one's ethnic or cultural group is centrally important, and that all other groups are measured in relation to one's own. The ethnocentric individual will judge other groups relative to his or her own particular ethnic group or culture, especially with concern to language, behavior, customs, and religion · Eurocentrism Eurocentrism is a term coined during the period of decolonization in the later 20th century to refer to the practice of viewing the world from a European perspective, with an implied belief, either consciously or subconsciously, in the preeminence of European culture. The term Eurocentrism implies criticism of the concerns and values at the Genetic Genetic discrimination occurs when people are treated differently by their employer or insurance company because they have a gene mutation that causes or increases the risk of an inherited disorder. People who undergo genetic testing may be at risk for genetic discrimination · Gynocentrism Gynocentrism is a belief system whereby the perceptions, needs and desires of women have primacy. In this system, the female view is the reference point or lens through which matters are analysed · Indigenism Indigenism is a kind of ethnic nationalism emphasizing the group's indigeneity to their homeland. This may be embraced by post-colonial anarchism as well as in neo-völkisch or national mysticist nationalism building on historical or pseudohistorical claims of ethnic continuity. While New World movements usually go by the name indigenism , the Jingoism Jingoism is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary as "extreme patriotism in the form of aggressive foreign policy". In practice, it refers to the advocation of the use of threats or actual force against other countries in order to safeguard what they perceive as their country's national interests, and colloquially to excessive bias in · Linguistic Crime of apartheid · CERD · CEDAW · CDE · ILO C111 · ILO C100 · ILO C169 · Protocol No. 12 ECHR · Sinocentrism Sinocentrism is any ethnocentric perspective that regards China to be the center of civilization which is superior to all other nations. This belief was popular among the Chinese elites up to Qing dynasty; however it is not so widely popular among Chinese in present day. In pre-modern times however, this took the form of viewing China as the only Xenocentrism Xenocentrism is a political neologism, coined as the antonym of Ethnocentrism. Xenocentrism is the preference for the products, styles, or ideas of someone else's culture rather than of one's own. The 18th Century Primitivism movement in European art and philosophy, and its concept of the Noble savage is an example of xenocentrism · White supremacy Crime of apartheid · CERD · CEDAW · CDE · ILO C111 · ILO C100 · ILO C169 · Protocol No. 12 ECHR

Bigotry CERD · CEDAW · CDE · ILO C111 · ILO C100 · ILO C169 · Protocol No. 12 ECHR · Diversity The term diversity is a form of euphemistic shorthand to describe differences in racial or ethnic classifications, age, gender, religion, philosophy, physical abilities, socioeconomic background, sexual orientation, gender identity, intelligence, mental health, physical health, genetic attributes, behavior, attractiveness, cultural values, or · Eugenics Eugenics is the study and practice of selective breeding applied to humans, with the aim of improving the species. In a historical and broader sense, eugenics can also be a study of "improving human genetic qualities." Advocates of eugenics sought to counter what they regarded as dysgenic dynamics within the human gene pool. Specifically, Hatred Hatred is an intense feeling of dislike. It may occur in a wide variety of contexts, from hatred of inanimate objects or animals, to hatred of oneself or other people, entire groups of people, people in general, existence, or everything. Though not always, hatred is often associated with feelings of anger · Oppression Oppression is the exercise of authority or power in a burdensome, cruel, or unjust manner. It can also be defined as an act or instance of oppressing, the state of being oppressed, and the feeling of being heavily burdened, mentally or physically, by troubles, adverse conditions, and anxiety Political correctness Political correctness is a term which denotes language, ideas, policies, and behavior seen as seeking to minimize social and institutional offense in occupational, gender, racial, cultural, sexual orientation, disability, and age-related contexts. In current usage, the term is primarily pejorative, while the term politically incorrect has been · Prejudice A prejudice is a prejudgment: i.e. a preconceived belief, opinion, or judgment made without recourse to reason; drawing typically instead upon received information or upon instinctual preference. The word prejudice is most commonly used to refer to a preconceived judgment toward a people or a person because of race, social class, gender, ethnicity, Religious intolerance Crime of apartheid · CERD · CEDAW · CDE · ILO C111 · ILO C100 · ILO C169 · Protocol No. 12 ECHR · Tolerance In social, cultural and religious contexts, toleration and tolerance are terms used to describe attitudes which are "tolerant" of practices or group memberships that may be disapproved of by those in the majority. In practice, "tolerance" indicates support for practices that prohibit ethnic and religious discrimination

Audism is a term typically used to describe discrimination against deaf Hearing impairment or deafness refers to conditions in which individuals are fully or partially unable to detect or perceive at least some frequencies of sound which can typically be heard by members of their species. Use of the term impaired implies that deafness presents an inherent disadvantage to an animal, a view that is rejected within the or hard of hearing Hearing impairment or Deafness refers to conditions in which individuals are fully or partially unable to detect or perceive at least some frequencies of sound which can typically be heard by members of their species. Use of the term impaired implies that deafness presents an inherent disadvantage to an animal, a view that is rejected within the people, although it could also be expanded to include anyone with a difference in hearing ability. This discrimination can occur in a number of forms in a range that includes both physical, cultural, and linguistic variants. Further complicating the issue is the existence of intra-group discrimination, which can either mimic the pathways of inter-group discrimination or take entirely new forms. The term was popularly originated by author Tom Humphries in 1975^[1]; at the time the definition focused on the attitude that people who hear and speak, or hear and speak better, or have excellent English skills, are superior to others. The definition has since expanded to include more variations.

Types of Audism

One common form of physical audism occurs when a given person with hearing loss is judged as incapable of a given behavior, occupation, skill, ability, or achievement due solely to that hearing loss, whether or not there is evidence of that incapability, and usually without the person who engages in such discrimination entertaining the possibility of change on the part of the victim. This form of audism is a reflection of a widely-held naturalistic belief by people who can hear in their own superiority. While it is technically correct to say that some forms of employment or activity utilize sound, alternatives can usually be found and are sometimes preferable to their auditory counterparts, as the prevalence of text messaging despite the existence of telephones would seem to demonstrate. While opponents of such discrimination argue that deaf people can do anything that hearing people can do except hear, they recognize that there are limitations for certain kinds of employment in which deafness could plausibly carry an increased safety risk such as service in the army or employment as a commercial pilot (although technology already exists and is used which depends on text for communication, and armies have used signs for communication and continue to do so til this day.) Aside from such examples, deaf people and their proponents are capable of excelling in a wide range of settings and deserve equal opportunity Equal Opportunity, sometimes known as Equality of opportunity, is a term which has differing definitions and there is no consensus as to the precise meaning. In the classical sense, equality of opportunity is closely aligned with the concept of equality before the law, and ideas of meritocracy. This is true amongst political conservatives as well as progressives and liberals; noted conservative George Herbert Walker Bush, for example, was instrumental in the development of the Americans with Disabilities Act, which attempts to provide for the alterations which makes such employment possible. This form of audism can also include exclusion of Deaf people or the disparagement of their ideas. A famous historical example is a criticism of the socialist ideals of Helen Keller Helen Adams Keller was an American author, political activist and lecturer. She was the first deafblind person to earn a Bachelor of Arts degree. The story of how Keller's teacher, Anne Sullivan, broke through the isolation imposed by a near complete lack of language, allowing the girl to blossom as she learned to communicate, has become known by the Brooklyn Eagle, which implied that her ideas were of less value and should be taken less seriously than those of someone who could hear. (Note that Keller did not identify as culturally Deaf.)

A less common form of audism, but one which is felt deeply by the American culturally Deaf community, is discrimination against those who use signed languages such as American Sign Language American Sign Language is the dominant sign language of the Deaf Americans (which include the Deaf communities in the United States, in the English-speaking parts of Canada, and in some regions of Mexico[citation needed]). Although the United Kingdom and the United States share English as a spoken and written language, British Sign Language (BSL) or British Sign Language British Sign Language is the sign language used in the United Kingdom (UK), and is the first or preferred language of deaf people in the UK; the number of signers has been put at 30,000 to 70,000. The language makes use of space and involves movement of the hands, body, face and head. Many thousands of people who are not deaf also use BSL, as. This can occur by banning use of these languages (several schools engaged in such prohibition in America in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and some continue to do so.) It can also occur by criticism and disparagement of the languages, or persistent denials that they are languages at all, despite ample scientific proof. From the eighteenth century, and some say before, great controversy has raged over the inclusion of such languages in education.

A third form of audism is practiced against the Deaf person as a cultural entity. This can occur, for example, by criticism of aspects of Deaf peoples' cultures or by criticism against the right of Deaf people to have a culture as a whole. More subtle examples include the exclusion of Deaf people from representation in history, or their minimization and erasure as primal or secondary causes in history, movements, and other important aspects of national identity. Since being deaf is essentially to have an invisible difference, this is sometimes inadvertent rather than intentional.

Yet another form of audism is scientific- or medically-based and propagates a set of stereotypes to an entire class of people. Similar forms of discrimination have been experienced by racial groups, for example, who often ascribe demeaning physical characteristics to each other, depending on who is in the majority. Popular examples include that of the forced sterilization of deaf and hard of hearing adults by the Nazi regime in Germany in the 1930s and 1940s; similar eugenics-driven movements have been seen in other countries around the world.

Additionally, Deaf people can practice forms of discrimination against members of their own community, based on what they believe is "right" behavior, use of language, or social association. Dr. Genie Gertz explored examples of such audism in American society in her published dissertation.^[2]

Bitterness associated with decades of discrimination (both passive and active) has in some cases resulted in some people who are Deaf or hard of hearing developing discriminatory feelings toward people who can hear, whereby those in the Deaf community Deaf culture describes the social beliefs, behaviors, art, literary traditions, history, values, and shared institutions of deaf people who use a sign language. When used in this cultural sense, the word deaf is often capitalized in writing, and referred to as "big D Deaf" in American Sign Language or spoken English. Culturally Deaf no longer wish to associate with people who can hear, or, in a tiny minority, believe they are superior to those who can hear. Audism can also occur between groups of deaf people, with some who choose not to use a sign language and not to identify with Deaf culture Deaf culture describes the social beliefs, behaviors, art, literary traditions, history, values, and shared institutions of deaf people who use a sign language. When used in this cultural sense, the word deaf is often capitalized in writing, and referred to as "big D Deaf" in American Sign Language or spoken English. Culturally Deaf considering themselves to be 'better' than those who do, or vice versa.

All these variations of audism, and many which have gone unmentioned, have their echoes in gender, racial, religious, cultural, social, and sexual discrimination.

Audism and Audists

Audism, in the examples above, can be practiced either actively or passively. Those who engage in audism are termed audists.^[3] While those who actively engage in audism are few, the number of passive audists are many. A passive audist is an individual who has not given much thought to their actions concerning Deaf people, hearing people, or signed languages. Such a person, often, is only behaving in such a fashion because they are not informed of the differences between Deaf and hearing people. Such people are generally not malicious, and only act from ignorance. Their actions, however, can prevent the employment and education of deaf people despite their benign nature.

The active audist is one who, despite being informed, continues to engage in audist behavior. Their motivations often stem from audist perceptions; since they believe that it is better to, for example, use spoken rather than signed languages, they must maintain that belief. They occasionally deny that the Deaf Culture Deaf culture describes the social beliefs, behaviors, art, literary traditions, history, values, and shared institutions of deaf people who use a sign language. When used in this cultural sense, the word deaf is often capitalized in writing, and referred to as "big D Deaf" in American Sign Language or spoken English. Culturally Deaf even exists. The writer Harlan Lane in his book "The Mask of Benevolence" quite aptly describes the goal of the active audist: "dominating, restructuring and exercising authority over the deaf community." Active audists are far fewer than passive, but they tend to be much more adamant in their views than a passive audist. They seek to pursue the goals stated by Lane in various ways; they maintain orally-focused education should be the main method of education of the Deaf; they work to limit the usage of American Sign Language American Sign Language is the dominant sign language of the Deaf Americans (which include the Deaf communities in the United States, in the English-speaking parts of Canada, and in some regions of Mexico[citation needed]). Although the United Kingdom and the United States share English as a spoken and written language, British Sign Language (BSL) within Deaf residential schools; they support laws that hinder the Deaf person's ability to freely interact with the world around them, the latter in very extreme cases.

While passive audism can be contravened through knowledge and experience, active audism persists against knowledge and the shared experiences of deaf people.

Ideology

As an ideology, audism has existed for many centuries no matter which definition is being used, although the more recent recognition of the Deaf community as a discrete language-using culture has afforded many more such examples. Audism is often seen either as a subset of racism or eugenics, and has been tied to cultural colonialism by Dr. Paddy Ladd. ^[4] Over time, however, audism has been seen as reflecting the attitudes cutlures maintain about Deaf people, and examples are thus seen as existing primarily within a medical paradigm, cultural paradigm, and edu/linguistic paradigm, and much of the discourse about audism focuses on these three areas. In recent decades, with the proliferation of easily accessible communication technology, the discourse has expanded to focus on any area which involves deaf or Deaf people. Harlan Lane to some extent examines the development of Deaf-based educational principles in his history of Franco-American Deaf relations and educational philosophy.^[5]

Ethnic Conflicts

Much conflict exists around the concepts defined by the term audism, most often stemming from lack of clarity in use of the term - as in many other cultural or sociological debates. The term is sometimes used to describe typically xenophobic behaviors, for example. One of the earliest forms of audist ethnic conflict is found in the classics and in early Judeo-Christian writings. Plato, for example, mentions users of a signed language, but he and Aristotle were in near-perfect agreement: without the ability to speak, Deaf people could be little more than barbarians. Similarly, writers such as St. Augustine propounded the notion that deafness, much as white supremacist conceptions of the nature of black skin, was a hereditary "curse" from God. Such thinking probably lay behind most early laws preventing Deaf people from owning property; Deaf people were considered either unintelligent or cursed, despite evidence to the contrary. It also contributed to conditions persisting until the early 1400s providing for the Church to prevent Deaf people joining, on the grounds that their inability to speak was both earned and a sign that they could not be saved. Such ideas additionally also provided for acceptable use of and mistreatment of Deaf peoples throughout the Middle Ages. Startling parallels exist in Church and state views of Black people and Native Americans at the time (several prominent writers argued that such people had no souls. It is debatable whether the justification permits the treatment or whether the treatment required the justification.)

Such conceptions were not uniquely European. Many African cultures saw the deaf individual as cursed and were against the use of signed languages. Some insisted on the death of such individuals. (In contrast, many native American cultures integrated the use of signed languages with their societies, and others had specific roles for Deaf or disabled peoples within their society.)

Repeatedly, writers such as Ponce De Leon and Girolamo Cardano used personal experiences with Deaf individuals to demonstrate the injustice of such ideas. Throughout history those with personal experience with deaf individuals have fought against such systematic, ingrained misperceptions. It is to be noted, however, that industry exists which requires such misperceptions.

See also

• Deafhood
• Deaf culture Deaf culture describes the social beliefs, behaviors, art, literary traditions, history, values, and shared institutions of deaf people who use a sign language. When used in this cultural sense, the word deaf is often capitalized in writing, and referred to as "big D Deaf" in American Sign Language or spoken English. Culturally Deaf
• Models of deafness Various models of deafness are rooted in either the social or biological sciences. These are the medical model, the social model, and the cultural model. The model used can affect how deaf persons are treated and their identity. In the medical model, deafness is viewed as an undesirable condition, to be so treated. Within the social model, the

References

1. ^ Capital D Magazine, Vol. 1, Iss. 1
2. ^ Dysconscious Audism: A Theoretical Proposal in Open Your Eyes: Deaf Studies Talking
3. ^ Nashville Deaf Expo Tennessee Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf 2006
4. ^ Understanding Deaf Culture: In Search of Deafhood 2008
5. ^ When The Mind Hears. Lane, 1980

External links

• Audism FAQ by Gallaudet University
• deafness.about.com on audism
• [1] Audism Unveiled, a film of interviews with Deaf people about how audism has impacted their lives

Categories: Deafness | Deaf culture | Discrimination Categories: Prejudice and discrimination | Core issues in ethics | Civil rights and liberties | Social inequality | Human behavior | Human rights abuses | Prejudices | Injustice

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