CERD The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination is a United Nations convention. A second-generation human rights instrument, the Convention commits its members to the elimination of racial discrimination and the promotion of understanding among all races. Controversially, the Convention also requires its · CEDAW The Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women is an international convention adopted in 1979 by the United Nations General Assembly. Described as an international bill of rights for women, it came into force on 3 September 1981. The United States is the only developed nation that has not ratified the CEDAW. Several · CDE Convention against Discrimination in Education is a convention adopted by UNESCO in 1960 aiming to combat segregation and discrimination in the field of education. It has entered into force in 1962. There is an additional Protocol Instituting a Conciliation and Good offices Commission, adopted in 1962 and entering force in 1968. As of March, 2010, · ILO C111 Discrimination Convention, 1958 is an International Labour Organization Convention · ILO C100 Equal Remuneration Convention, 1951 is an International Labour Organization Convention · ILO C169 Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 is an International Labour Organization Convention, also known as ILO-convention 169, or C169. It is the major binding international convention concerning indigenous peoples, and a forerunner of the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples · Protocol No. 12 ECHR Protocol No. 12 to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms is an anti-discrimination treaty of the Council of Europe. It was adopted on November 4, 2000, in Rome and entered into force on April 1, 2005, after tenth ratification. As of February, 2010, it has 17 member states and 20 signatories (from 47 CoE member

Other forms

Adultcentrism CERD · CEDAW · CDE · ILO C111 · ILO C100 · ILO C169 · Protocol No. 12 ECHR · Androcentrism Androcentrism is the practice, conscious or otherwise, of placing male human beings or the masculine point of view at the center of one's view of the world and its culture and history. The related adjective is androcentric, while the opposite of androcentrism is gynocentrism Anthropocentrism Anthropocentrism is a concept that human beings may regard themselves as the central and most significant entities in the universe, or that they assess reality through an exclusively human perspective. The term can be used interchangeably with humanocentrism, while the first concept can also be referred to as human supremacy. The views are · Afrocentrism Afrocentrism, Afrocentricity, or Africentrism is a world view which emphasizes the importance of African people, taken as a single group and often equated with "Black people", in culture, philosophy, and history. The roots of Afrocentrism lay in a reaction to the repression of Black people throughout the Western world in the 19th century Americentrism Americentrism is a pejorative term referring to the ethnocentric practice of viewing the world from an explicitly American perspective, with an implied belief, either consciously or subconsciously, in the preeminence of American culture · Black supremacy Crime of apartheid · CERD · CEDAW · CDE · ILO C111 · ILO C100 · ILO C169 · Protocol No. 12 ECHR Chronocentrism It is in one sense the interpretation of events and actions of other times within the moral context of one's own time. For example, a slave owner in the 1700s who treated his slaves like free estate workers and arranged for them to be freed at his death was unusually enlightened when viewed within the proper context of his time, but someone guilty · Economic Crime of apartheid · CERD · CEDAW · CDE · ILO C111 · ILO C100 · Protocol No. 12 ECHR Ethnocentrism Ethnocentrism is the tendency to believe that one's ethnic or cultural group is centrally important, and that all other groups are measured in relation to one's own. The ethnocentric individual will judge other groups relative to his or her own particular ethnic group or culture, especially with concern to language, behavior, customs, and religion · Eurocentrism Eurocentrism is a term coined during the period of decolonization in the later 20th century to refer to the practice of viewing the world from a European perspective, with an implied belief, either consciously or subconsciously, in the preeminence of European culture. The term Eurocentrism implies criticism of the concerns and values at the Genetic Genetic discrimination occurs when people are treated differently by their employer or insurance company because they have a gene mutation that causes or increases the risk of an inherited disorder. People who undergo genetic testing may be at risk for genetic discrimination · Gynocentrism Gynocentrism is a belief system whereby the perceptions, needs and desires of women have primacy. In this system, the female view is the reference point or lens through which matters are analysed · Indigenism Indigenism is a kind of ethnic nationalism emphasizing the group's indigeneity to their homeland. This may be embraced by post-colonial anarchism as well as in neo-völkisch or national mysticist nationalism building on historical or pseudohistorical claims of ethnic continuity. While New World movements usually go by the name indigenism , the Jingoism Jingoism is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary as "extreme patriotism in the form of aggressive foreign policy". In practice, it refers to the advocation of the use of threats or actual force against other countries in order to safeguard what they perceive as their country's national interests, and colloquially to excessive bias in · Linguistic Crime of apartheid · CERD · CEDAW · CDE · ILO C111 · ILO C100 · ILO C169 · Protocol No. 12 ECHR · Sinocentrism Sinocentrism is any ethnocentric perspective that regards China to be the center of civilization which is superior to all other nations. This belief was popular among the Chinese elites up to Qing dynasty; however it is not so widely popular among Chinese in present day. In pre-modern times however, this took the form of viewing China as the only Xenocentrism Xenocentrism is a political neologism, coined as the antonym of Ethnocentrism. Xenocentrism is the preference for the products, styles, or ideas of someone else's culture rather than of one's own. The 18th Century Primitivism movement in European art and philosophy, and its concept of the Noble savage is an example of xenocentrism · White supremacy Crime of apartheid · CERD · CEDAW · CDE · ILO C111 · ILO C100 · ILO C169 · Protocol No. 12 ECHR

Related topics

Bigotry CERD · CEDAW · CDE · ILO C111 · ILO C100 · ILO C169 · Protocol No. 12 ECHR · Diversity The term diversity is a form of euphemistic shorthand to describe differences in racial or ethnic classifications, age, gender, religion, philosophy, physical abilities, socioeconomic background, sexual orientation, gender identity, intelligence, mental health, physical health, genetic attributes, behavior, attractiveness, cultural values, or · Eugenics Eugenics is the study and practice of selective breeding applied to humans, with the aim of improving the species. In a historical and broader sense, eugenics can also be a study of "improving human genetic qualities." Advocates of eugenics sought to counter what they regarded as dysgenic dynamics within the human gene pool. Specifically, Hatred Hatred is an intense feeling of dislike. It may occur in a wide variety of contexts, from hatred of inanimate objects or animals, to hatred of oneself or other people, entire groups of people, people in general, existence, or everything. Though not always, hatred is often associated with feelings of anger · Oppression Oppression is the exercise of authority or power in a burdensome, cruel, or unjust manner. It can also be defined as an act or instance of oppressing, the state of being oppressed, and the feeling of being heavily burdened, mentally or physically, by troubles, adverse conditions, and anxiety Political correctness Political correctness is a term which denotes language, ideas, policies, and behavior seen as seeking to minimize social and institutional offense in occupational, gender, racial, cultural, sexual orientation, disability, and age-related contexts. In current usage, the term is primarily pejorative, while the term politically incorrect has been · Prejudice A prejudice is a prejudgment: i.e. a preconceived belief, opinion, or judgment made without recourse to reason; drawing typically instead upon received information or upon instinctual preference. The word prejudice is most commonly used to refer to a preconceived judgment toward a people or a person because of race, social class, gender, ethnicity, Religious intolerance Crime of apartheid · CERD · CEDAW · CDE · ILO C111 · ILO C100 · ILO C169 · Protocol No. 12 ECHR · Tolerance In social, cultural and religious contexts, toleration and tolerance are terms used to describe attitudes which are "tolerant" of practices or group memberships that may be disapproved of by those in the majority. In practice, "tolerance" indicates support for practices that prohibit ethnic and religious discrimination

Discrimination portal Antiziganism is hostility, prejudice or racism directed at the Romani people, commonly called Gypsies. The Roma — who have often been stereotyped as thieves, tramps, con men and fortune tellers — have been subject to various forms of discrimination throughout history

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Homophobia is a range of negative attitudes An attitude is a hypothetical construct that represents an individual's degree of like or dislike for an item. Attitudes are generally positive or negative views of a person, place, thing, or event-- this is often referred to as the attitude object. People can also be conflicted or ambivalent toward an object, meaning that they simultaneously and feelings towards homosexuality Homosexuality is romantic or sexual attraction or behavior among members of the same sex/gender. As a sexual orientation, homosexuality refers to "an enduring pattern of or disposition to experience sexual, affectional, or romantic attractions primarily to" people of the same sex; "it also refers to an individual’s sense of and people identified or perceived as being homosexual. Definitions^[1][2][3] refer variably to antipathy Antipathy is dislike for something or somebody, the opposite of sympathy. While antipathy may be induced by previous experience, it sometimes exists without a rational cause-and-effect explanation being present to the individuals involved, contempt Contempt is an intense feeling or attitude of regarding someone or something as inferior, base, or worthless—it is similar to scorn. It is also used when people are being sarcastic. Contempt is also defined as the state of being despised or dishonored; disgrace, and an open disrespect or willful disobedience of the authority of a court of law or, prejudice A prejudice is a prejudgment: i.e. a preconceived belief, opinion, or judgment made without recourse to reason; drawing typically instead upon received information or upon instinctual preference. The word prejudice is most commonly used to refer to a preconceived judgment toward a people or a person because of race, social class, gender, ethnicity,, aversion, and irrational fear Fear is an emotional response to a perceived threat. It is a basic survival mechanism occurring in response to a specific stimulus, such as pain or the threat of danger. Some psychologists such as John B. Watson, Robert Plutchik, and Paul Ekman have suggested that fear is one of a small set of basic or innate emotions. This set also includes such. Homophobia is observable in critical and hostile behavior such as discrimination CERD · CEDAW · CDE · ILO C111 · ILO C100 · ILO C169 · Protocol No. 12 ECHR^[1][2] and violence Crime of apartheid · CERD · CEDAW · CDE · ILO C111 · ILO C100 · ILO C169 · Protocol No. 12 ECHR on the basis of a perceived non-heterosexual Non-heterosexual is an umbrella term, describing homosexual, bisexual, asexual, and other people who do not identify as heterosexual. The term helps define the "concept of what is the norm and how a particular group is different from that norm". Non-heterosexual is used in feminist and gender studies fields as well as general academic orientation. In a 1998 address, author, activist, and civil rights leader Coretta Scott King Coretta Scott King was an American author, activist, and civil rights leader. The widow of Martin Luther King, Jr., Coretta Scott King helped lead the African-American Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s stated that "Homophobia is like racism CERD · CEDAW · CDE · ILO C111 · ILO C100 · ILO C169 · Protocol No. 12 ECHR and anti-Semitism Antisemitism is prejudice against or hostility towards Jews, often rooted in hatred of their ethnic background, culture, and/or religion. In its extreme form, it "attributes to the Jews an exceptional position among all other civilizations, defames them as an inferior group and denies their being part of the nation[s]" in which they and other forms of bigotry CERD · CEDAW · CDE · ILO C111 · ILO C100 · ILO C169 · Protocol No. 12 ECHR in that it seeks to dehumanize a large group of people, to deny their humanity, their dignity and personhood."^[4]

Among some more discussed forms of homophobia are institutionalized homophobia (e.g. religious homophobia and state-sponsored homophobia^[5]), lesbophobia Lesbophobia comprises various forms of negativity toward lesbian women as individuals, as a couple or as a social group. Based on the categories of sex or biological gender, sexual orientation, lesbian identity, and gender expression, this negativity encompasses prejudice, discrimination, and abuse in addition to attitudes and feelings ranging - the intersection Intersectionality is a sociological theory suggesting that—and seeking to examine how—various socially and culturally constructed categories of discrimination interact on multiple and often simultaneous levels, contributing to systematic social inequality. Intersectionality holds that the classical models of oppression within society, such as of homophobia and sexism directed against lesbians, and internalized homophobia - a form of homophobia among people who experience same-sex attraction regardless of whether or not they identify as LGBT.

Two words originate from homophobia: homophobic (adj.) and homophobe (n.), the latter word being a label for a person who displays homophobia or is thought to do so.

Contents 1 Origins 1.1 Coinage 1.2 First documented uses 2 Criticism of meaning and purpose 2.1 Distinctions and proposed alternatives 2.2 Opposition 3 Classification 3.1 Institutionalized homophobia 3.1.1 Religious homophobia 3.1.2 State-sponsored homophobia 3.1.2.1 Past regimes 3.1.2.2 Current governments 3.1.3 Overlapping homophobias 3.2 Internalized homophobia 3.3 Social homophobia 4 Precursor to a climate of prejudice 4.1 Sexist beliefs 4.2 Distribution of attitudes in the UK and US 5 Efforts to combat homophobia 6 See also 7 References 8 External links

Origins

Coinage

It has been argued^[6] that since the word homo is an anti-gay insult,^[7] a reasonable interpretation of homophobia is fear of ‘homos’, that is, homosexuals.^[8]

First documented uses

Rainbow Flag with black mourning band, used by demonstrators after the 2009 Tel Aviv gay centre shooting.

George Weinberg is credited as the first person to use the term in speech.^[8] The word homophobia first appeared in print in an article written for the May 23, 1969, edition of the American tabloid Screw, in which the word was used to refer to heterosexual men's fear that others might think they are gay.^[8]

Conceptualizing anti-LGBT prejudice as a social problem worthy of scholarly attention was not new. In 1971, Kenneth Smith was the first person to use homophobia as a personality profile to describe the psychological aversion to homosexuality.^[9] George Weinberg, a psychologist, also used it this way in his 1972 book Society and the Healthy Homosexual,^[10] published one year before the American Psychiatric Association voted to remove homosexuality from its list of mental disorders.^[11][12] Weinberg's term became an important tool for gay and lesbian activists, advocates, and their allies.^[8] He describes the concept as a medical phobia:^[10]

[A] phobia about homosexuals….It was a fear of homosexuals which seemed to be associated with a fear of contagion, a fear of reducing the things one fought for — home and family. It was a religious fear and it had led to great brutality as fear always does.^[8]

In 1982, homophobia was used for the first time in The New York Times to report that the General Synod of the Church of England voted to refuse to condemn homosexuality.^[13]

Criticism of meaning and purpose

Distinctions and proposed alternatives

Researchers have proposed alternative terms to describe prejudice and discrimination against LGBT people. Some of these alternatives show more semantic transparency while others do not include -phobia:

• Homoerotophobia, being a possible precursor term to homophobia, was coined by Wainwright Churchill and documented in Homosexual Behavior Among Males in 1967.

• The specious etymology of homophobia citing the union of homos and phobos is the basis for LGBT historian Boswell's criticism of the term and for his suggestion of the alternative homosexophobia.^[14]

• Homonegativity is based on the term homonegativism used by Hudson and Ricketts in a 1980 paper; they coined the term for their research in order to avoid homophobia, which they regarded as being unscientific in its presumption of motivation.^[15]

• Heterosexism refers to a system of negative attitudes, bias, and discrimination in favor of opposite-sex sexual orientation and relationships.^{[16] p. 13} It can include the presumption that everyone is heterosexual or that opposite-sex attractions and relationships are the only norm^[17] and therefore superior.

• Sexual prejudice - Researcher at the University of California, Davis Gregory M. Herek preferred sexual prejudice as being descriptive, free of presumptions about motivations, and lacking value judgments as to the irrationality or immorality of those so labeled.^[18][19] He compared homophobia, heterosexism, and sexual prejudice, and, in preferring the third term, noted that homophobia was "probably more widely used and more often criticized." He also observed that "Its critics note that homophobia implicitly suggests that antigay attitudes are best understood as an irrational fear and that they represent a form of individual psychopathology rather than a socially reinforced prejudice."

Opposition

Use of homophobia, homophobic, and homophobe has been criticized as pejorative against those with differing value positions.

• In 1993, behavioral scientists William O'Donohue and Christine Caselles concluded that the usage of the term "as it is usually used, makes an illegitimately pejorative evaluation of certain open and debatable value positions, much like the former disease construct of homosexuality" itself, arguing that the term may be used as an ad hominem argument against those who advocate values or positions of which the speaker does not approve. The social construct of masculinity is not defined by attraction to females alone but also by negative attraction to males. The implication of a fear of something unmasculine, given the term's scientific etymology, may be used illegitimately to imply that anyone with a different opinion is unmasculine.^[20]
• A group of psychologists from the University of Arkansas conducted research that showed that participants responses were not fear-based but reflected a disapproval of homosexuality that was due to other factors, such as "disgust".^[21]
• The National Association for Research & Therapy of Homosexuality, an organization affiliated with the ex-gay movement, describes the term homophobia as being "often used inaccurately to describe any person who objects to homosexual behavior on either moral, psychological or medical grounds." They claim that, "Technically, however, the terms actually denotes a person who has a phobia — or irrational fear — of homosexuality. Principled disagreement, therefore, cannot be labeled 'homophobia.'"^[22]

Classification

Homophobia manifests in different forms, and a number of different types have been postulated, among which are internalized homophobia, social homophobia, emotional homophobia, rationalized homophobia, and others.^[23] There were also ideas to classify homophobia, racism, and sexism as an intolerant personality disorder.^[24]

Homophobia has never been listed as part of a clinical taxonomy of phobias, neither in DSM or ICD; homophobia is usually used in a non-clinical sense.^[25]

Institutionalized homophobia

Religious homophobia

Westboro Baptist Church member Ben Phelps, grandson of Fred Phelps. See also: Religion and homosexuality

State-sponsored homophobia

State-sponsored homophobia includes the criminalization and penalization of homosexuality, hate speech from government figures, and other forms of discrimination, violence, persecution of LGBT people.

Past regimes

Main articles: LGBT rights in China and LGBT rights in Russia See also: History of homosexual people in Nazi Germany and the Holocaust

In China homosexual behavior was outlawed in 1740. When Mao came to power, the government thought of homosexuality as "social disgrace or a form of mental illness", and "[d]uring the cultural revolution (1966 - 76), people who were homosexual faced their worst period of persecution in Chinese history." Despite there being no law in the communist People's Republic against homosexuality, "police regularly rounded up gays and lesbians." Other laws were used to prosecute homosexual people and they were "charged with hooliganism or disturbing public order."^[26]

The Soviet Union under Vladimir Lenin decriminalized homosexuality in 1922, long before many other European countries. The Russian Communist Party effectively legalized no-fault divorce, abortion and homosexuality, when they abolished all the old Tsarist laws and the initial Soviet criminal code kept these liberal sexual policies in place.^[27] However, some left-wing figures have considered homosexuality a "bourgeois disease", a right-wing movement or a "Western disease".^[28] Lenin's emancipation was reversed a decade later by Joseph Stalin and homosexuality remained illegal under Article 121 until the Yeltsin era.

Current governments

Main articles: LGBT rights in Iran, LGBT rights in Jamaica, LGBT rights in North Korea, LGBT rights in Uganda, and LGBT rights in Zimbabwe See also: Uganda Anti-Homosexuality Bill

The North Korean government condemns Western gay culture as a vice caused by the decadence of capitalist society, and denounces it as promoting consumerism, classism, and promiscuity.^[29] In North Korea, "violating the rules of collective socialist life" can be punished with up to two years' imprisonment.^[30] However, according to the North Korean government, "As a country that has embraced science and rationalism, the DPRK recognizes that many individuals are born with homosexuality as a genetic trait and treats them with due respect. Homosexuals in the DPRK have never been subject to repression, as in many capitalist regimes around the world."

Robert Mugabe, the leader of Zimbabwe, has waged a violent campaign against people who are homosexual, arguing that before colonisation, Zimbabweans did not engage in homosexual acts.^[31] His first major public condemnation of homosexuality was in August 1995, during the Zimbabwe International Book Fair.^[32] He told an audience: "If you see people parading themselves as lesbians and gays, arrest them and hand them over to the police!"^[33] In September 1995, Zimbabwe's parliament introduced legislation banning homosexual acts.^[32] In 1997, a court found Canaan Banana, Mugabe's predecessor and the first President of Zimbabwe, guilty of 11 counts of sodomy and indecent assault.^[34][35]

Overlapping homophobias

In some cases, the distinction between religious homophobia and state-sponsored homophobia is not clear, a key example being territories under Islamic authority. All major Islamic sects forbid homosexuality, which is a crime under Sharia Law and treated as such in most Muslim coutries. In Afghanistan, for instance, homosexuality carried the death penalty under the Taliban. After their fall, homosexuality went from a capital crime to one punished with fines and prison sentences. The legal situation in the United Arab Emirates, however, is unclear.

In 2009, ILGA published a report entitled State Sponsored Homophobia 2009^[36], which is based on research carried out by Daniel Ottosson at Södertörn University College, Stockholm, Sweden. This research found that of the 80 countries around the world that continue to consider homosexuality illegal:^[37][38]

• Five carry the death penalty for homosexual activity: Iran, Mauritania, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Yemen^[39]. Since the 1979 Islamic revolution in Iran, the Iranian government has executed more than 4,000 people charged with homosexual acts.^[40] In Saudi Arabia, the maximum punishment for homosexuality is public execution, but the government will use other punishments - e.g., fines, jail time, and whipping - as alternatives, unless it feels that people engaging in homosexual activity are challenging state authority by engaging in LGBT social movements.^[41]

• Two do in some regions: Nigeria, Somalia^[39]

In 2001, Al-Muhajiroun, an international organization seeking the establishment of a global Islamic caliphate, issued a fatwa declaring that all members of The Al-Fatiha Foundation (which advances the cause of gay, lesbian, and transgender Muslims) were murtadd, or apostates, and condemning them to death. Because of the threat and coming from conservative societies, many members of the foundation's site still prefer to be anonymous so as to protect their identity while continuing a tradition of secrecy.^[42]

See also: Mahmoud Asgari and Ayaz Marhoni, Arsham Parsi, Irshad Manji

Internalized homophobia

Internalized homophobia (or egodystonic homophobia) refers to negative feeling towards oneself because of homosexuality.^[43][44] This term has been criticized because holding negative attitudes does not necessarily involve a phobia, and the term "internalized stigma" is sometimes used instead.^[43] It causes severe discomfort with or disapproval of one's own sexual orientation. Internalized homophobia is thus a form of cognitive dissonance; the individual cannot reconcile the conflicting conscious or unconscious sexual desires with values and tenets gained from society, religion or upbringing.^{[citation needed]}

Such a situation may cause extreme repression of homosexual desires.^[45] In other cases, a conscious internal struggle may occur for some time, often pitting deeply held religious or social beliefs against strong sexual and emotional desires. This discordance often causes clinical depression, and the unusually high suicide rate among gay teenagers (up to 30 percent of non-heterosexual youth attempt suicide) has been attributed to this phenomenon.^[46] Psychotherapy, such as gay affirmative psychotherapy, and participation in a sexual-minority affirming group can help resolve the internal conflict between a religious and a sexual identity.^[43]

The label of internalized homophobia is sometimes applied to conscious or unconscious behaviors which an observer feels the need to promote or conform to the expectations of heteronormativity or heterosexism. This can include extreme repression and denial coupled with forced outward displays of heteronormative behavior for the purpose of appearing or attempting to feel "normal" or "accepted". This might also include less overt behavior like making assumptions about the gender of a person's romantic partner, or about gender roles. Some also apply this label to LGBT persons who support "compromise" policies, such as those that find civil unions an acceptable alternative to same-sex marriage. Whether this is a tactical judgement call or the result of some kind of internal prejudice (whether in a cause-and-effect fashion, or definitionally) is a matter of some debate.^{[citation needed]}

Some argue that some or most people who are homophobic have repressed their own homosexuality, but this argument is somewhat controversial. In 1996, a controlled study of 64 heterosexual men (half claimed to be homophobic by experience and self-reported orientation) at the University of Georgia found that men who were found to be homophobic (as measured by the Index of Homophobia)^[47] were considerably more likely to experience more erectile responses when exposed to homoerotic images than non-homophobic men.^[45]

Social homophobia

The word can be used to describe the fear of a heterosexual that they will be approached romantically by someone of the same sex. It also can describe the apparently fear-based reactions of recoiling from unintentional close contact with another male or of being in close proximity to other males in certain situations such as while in the restroom.^{[citation needed]} These are typically fear-based reactions, but the fear is usually that of the social stigma of being labelled homosexual.^{[citation needed]}

The fear of being identified as gay can be considered as a form of social homophobia. Theorists including Calvin Thomas and Judith Butler have suggested that homophobia can be rooted in an individual's fear of being identified as gay. Homophobia in men is correlated with insecurity about masculinity.^[48][49] For this reason, allegedly homophobia is rampant in sports, and in the subculture of its supporters, that are considered stereotypically "male", like football (rugby).^[50]

These theorists have argued that a person who expresses homophobic thoughts and feelings does so not only to communicate their beliefs about the class of gay people, but also to distance themselves from this class and its social status. Thus, by distancing themselves from gay people, they are reaffirming their role as a heterosexual in a heteronormative culture, thereby attempting to prevent themselves from being labeled and treated as a gay person. This interpretation alludes to the idea that a person may posit violent opposition to "the Other" as a means of establishing their own identity as part of the majority and thus gaining social validation. This concept is also recurrent in interpretations of racism and xenophobia.^{[citation needed]}

Nancy J. Chodorow states that homophobia can be viewed as a method of protection of male masculinity.^[51]

Various psychoanalytic theories explain homophobia as a threat to an individual's own same-sex impulses, whether those impulses are imminent or merely hypothetical. This threat causes repression, denial or reaction formation.^[52]

Precursor to a climate of prejudice

Sexist beliefs

An anti-homophobia protester at a demonstration in Canada, 2009

This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be and removed. (June 2008)

Some gender theorists interpret the fact that male-to-male relationships often incite a stronger reaction in homophobic people than female-to-female (lesbian) as meaning that people who are homophobic feel more threatened by the perceived subversion of the male-superior gender paradigm. According to such theorists as D. A. Miller, male heterosexuality is defined not only by the desire for women but also (and more importantly) by the denial of desire for men. Therefore, expressions of homophobia serve as a means of accenting their male nature by distancing themselves from the threatening concept of their own potential femininity, and consequently belittling gay men, as not being real males. According to this theory, the reason male homosexuality is treated worse compared to female homosexuality is sexist in its underlying belief that men are superior to women and therefore for a man to "replace" a woman during intercourse with another man necessarily degrades his own masculine status.

Miller's view implies that only the receptive or submissive role in a homosexual act is regarded as emasculating, as is the case in many cultures. His specific claim that male heterosexuality does not require a "desire for women" seems to preclude the possibility of asexuality or bisexuality. It is not made clear why heterosexual men would "need" to fear gay people in order to affirm maleness – unless they perceived that their sexuality was already threatened by another factor.

Other theories of the difference in homophobic reactions to male-male rather than female-female homosexual relationships simply have to do with a common sexual desire. A heterosexual man desires women. For a woman to desire women is thus more understandable than for a man to desire men, as a heterosexual man and homosexual woman share the same desire for women, but a heterosexual man cannot understand or identify with the attraction of one man to another man. Similarly, homosexual men desire men, and thus for a man to desire men is understandable to a woman who has the same desires.

Distribution of attitudes in the UK and US

The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. (October 2009)

Disapproval of homosexuality and of gay people is not evenly distributed throughout society, but is more or less pronounced according to age, ethnicity, geographic location, race, sex, social class, education, partisan identification and religious status. According to UK HIV/AIDS charity AVERT, lack of homosexual feelings or experiences, religious views, and lack of interaction with gay people are strongly associated with such views.^[53]

The anxiety of heterosexual individuals (particularly adolescents whose construction of heterosexual masculinity is based in part on not being seen as gay) that others may identify them as gay^[54][55] has also been identified by Michael Kimmel as an example of homophobia.^[56] The taunting of boys seen as eccentric (and who are not usually gay) is claimed to be endemic in rural and suburban American schools, and has been associated with risk-taking behavior and outbursts of violence (such as a spate of school shootings) by boys seeking revenge or trying to assert their masculinity.^[57]

In the United States, attitudes about people who are homosexual may vary on the basis of partisan identification. Republicans are far more likely than Democrats to have negative attitudes about people who are gay and lesbian, according to surveys conducted by the National Election Studies in 2000 through 2004.

Homophobia also varies by region, statistics show that the Southern United States has more reports of anti-gay prejudice than any other region in the US.^[58]

The disparity is shown in the graph on the right, which is from a book published in 2008 by Joseph Fried. It should be noted that the tendency of Republicans to view gay and lesbian people negatively could be based on homophobia, religious beliefs, or conservatism with respect to the traditional family.^[59]

One study of white adolescent males conducted at the University of Cincinnati by Janet Baker has been used to argue that negative feelings towards gay people are also associated with other discriminatory behaviors. The study claims to have found that hatred of gay people, anti-Semitism and racism are "likely companions",^[60] suggesting it is an abuse of power. A study performed in 2007 in the UK for the charity Stonewall reports that 90 percent of the population support anti-discrimination laws protecting gay and lesbian people.^[61]

Social constructs and culture can perpetuate homophobic attitudes. Such cultural sources in the black community include:

• Music and music videos^[62][63][64]
• Churches^[65][66][67]

Sources of homophobia in the white community include:

• The Arts

Films and literature that project negative gay stereotypes.

• Churches

Pastor John Hagee said in 2006, "I believe that New Orleans had a level of sin that was offensive to God, and they were recipients of the judgment of God for that. The newspaper carried the story in our local area, that was not carried nationally, that there was to be a homosexual parade there on the Monday that the Katrina came."^[68][69] This view was echoed by Fred Phelps and the Westboro Baptist Church, who promote the view that virtually all wars and natural disasters affecting America are God's punishment for tolerating homosexuality.

Professional sports in many countries involves homophobic expressions by star athletes and by fans, and has happened even in the United States at least twice:

• Hockey fans

The homophobic chants and attitudes of certain fans, for example the labelling of one fan who frequently dances at games as "Homo Larry", have been protested by attendees of New York Rangers games and by New York City Council Speaker Christine Quinn.^[70]

• Basketball players

All-Star National Basketball Association player Tim Hardaway drew criticism after he said on the "790 the Ticket" radio show, "Well, you know, I hate gay people. I let it be known I don’t like gay people. I don’t like to be around gay people. I’m homophobic. I don’t like it, it shouldn’t be in the world, in the United States, I don’t like it.”^[71]

However, the major professional sports leagues do not advocate homophobia, and regard the LGBT community a very important marketing base.^[72][73][74]

Efforts to combat homophobia

An anti-homophobia protester at a demonstration in Paris, in 2005

Most international human rights organizations, such as Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International, condemn laws that make homosexual relations between consenting adults a crime. Since 1994, the United Nations Human Rights Committee has also ruled that such laws violated the right to privacy guaranteed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. In 2008, the Roman Catholic Church issued a statement which "urges States to do away with criminal penalties against [homosexual persons]." The statement, however, was addressed to reject a resolution by the UN Assembly that would have precisely called for an end of penalties against homosexuals in the world.^[75] In March 2010, the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe adopted a recommendation on measures to combat discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation or gender identity, described by CoE Secretary General as the first legal instrument in the world dealing specifically with one of the most long-lasting and difficult forms of discrimination to combat.^[76]

To combat homophobia, the LGBT community uses events such as gay pride parades and political activism (See gay pride). This is criticized by some^[who?] as counter-productive though, as gay pride parades showcase what could be seen as more "extreme" sexuality: fetish-based and gender-variant aspects of LGBT culture. One form of organized resistance to homophobia is the International Day Against Homophobia (or IDAHO),^[77] first celebrated May 17, 2005 in related activities in more than 40 countries.^[78] The four largest countries of Latin America (Argentina, Brazil, Mexico and Colombia) developed mass media campaigns against homophobia since 2002.^[79]

In addition to public expression, legislation has been designed, controversially, to oppose homophobia, as in hate speech, hate crime, and laws against discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation.

Some argue that anti-LGBT prejudice is immoral and goes above and beyond the effects on that class of people. Warren J. Blumenfeld argues that this emotion gains a dimension beyond itself, as a tool for extreme right-wing conservatives and fundamentalist religious groups and as a restricting factor on gender-relations as to the weight associated with performing each role accordingly.^[80] Furthermore, Blumenfeld in particular claimed:

Anti-gay bias causes young people to engage in sexual behavior earlier in order to prove that they are straight. Anti-gay bias contributed significantly to the spread of the AIDS epidemic. Anti-gay bias prevents the ability of schools to create effective honest sexual education programs that would save children's lives and prevent STDs.

See also

Allophilia Biphobia Corrective rape Faggot (slang) Hate crimes Heterophobia Heterosexism Homosexual agenda

Homosexual panic Homosexuality and Citizenship in Florida (pamphlet) Lavender baiting Lesbophobia LGBT rights opposition Sissyphobia: Gay Men and Effeminate Behavior Transphobia

LGBT portal

References

1. ^ ^{a b} "webster.com". 2008. http://www.webster.com/dictionary/homophobia. Retrieved 2008-01-29.
2. ^ ^{a b} homophobia "Dictonary.com". Dictonary.com. 2008. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/homophobia homophobia. Retrieved 2008-01-29.
3. ^ "European Parliament resolution on homophobia in Europe", Texts adopted Wednesday, 18 January 2006 - Strasbourg Final edition- "Homophobia in Europe" at "A" point
4. ^ Chicago Defender, April 1, 1998, front page
5. ^ International Lesbian and Gay Association. "State-sponsored Homophobia"
6. ^ MacDonald, A.P., Jr. (1976). "Homophobia: Its roots and meanings". Homosexual Counseling Journal 3 (1): 23–33.
7. ^ Boswell, John (1993). "On the use of the term “homo” as a derogatory epithet". in Wolinsky, M; Sherrill, K. Gays and the military: Joseph Steffan versus the United States. Princeton University Press. pp. 49–55.
8. ^ ^{a b c d e} Herek, Gregory M. (April 2004). "Beyond "Homophobia": Thinking About Sexual Prejudice and Stigma in the Twenty-First Century". Sexuality Research & Social Policy 1 (2): 6–24. doi:10.1525/srsp.2004.1.2.6.
9. ^ Smith, Kenneth T (1971). Homophobia: a tentative personality profile. 29. 1091–4. OCLC 100640283.
10. ^ ^{a b} Weinberg, George (1973) [1972]. Society and the healthy homosexual. Garden City, New York Anchor Press Doubleday & Co. ISBN 9780385050838. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/434538701.
11. ^ Freedman, Alfred M (September 1, 2000). "Recalling APA's Historic Step". APA News. ISSN 00332704. Archived from the original on 2002-12-19. http://web.archive.org/web/20021219211140/http://www.psych.org/pnews/00-09-01/recalling.html. Retrieved 2007-05-04.
12. ^ Macionis, John J.; Plummer, Kenneth (2005). Sociology: a global introduction (3 ed.). Pearson Education. p. 332. ISBN 9780131287464. http://books.google.com/?id=P4z3GgAgMFYC.
13. ^ Clifford Longley (February 28, 1981). "Homosexuality best seen as a handicap, Dr Runcie says". London: The Times. http://archive.timesonline.co.uk/tol/viewArticle.arc?articleId=ARCHIVE-The_Times-1981-02-28-02-008&pageId=ARCHIVE-The_Times-1981-02-28-02. "Let us recognize where the problem lies - in the dislike and distaste felt by many heterosexuals for homosexuals, a problem we have come to call homophobia." and Gledhill, Ruth (August 7, 2008). "New light on Archbishop of Canterbury's view on homosexuality". The Times (London). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/faith/article4474226.ece.
14. ^ Boswell, John (1980). Christianity, social tolerance, and homosexuality: Gay people in Western Europe from the beginning of the Christian era to the fourteenth century. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
15. ^ Hudson, WW; Ricketts, WA (1980). A strategy for the measurement of homophobia.. 5. 357–72. doi:10.1300/J082v05n04_02. OCLC 115532547.
16. ^ Jung, Patricia Beattie; Smith, Ralph F. (1993). Heterosexism: An Ethical Challenge. State University of New York Press. ISBN 0791416968.
17. ^ http://www.granddictionnaire.com/btml/fra/r_motclef/index800_1.asp
18. ^ Herek GM (1990). "The context of anti-gay violence: Notes on cultural and psychological heterosexism". J Interpers Violence 5: 316–33. doi:10.1177/088626090005003006.
19. ^ Herek, Gregory M. (2000). "The psychology of sexual prejudice". Curr Dir Psychol Sci 9. http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/rainbow/html/Current_Directions_preprint.pdf.
20. ^ O'Donohue, William; Caselles, Christine (September 1993). "Homophobia: Conceptual, definitional, and value issues". J Psychopathol Behav Assess 15 (3). http://www.springerlink.com/content/n0264m864t146585/.
21. ^ University of Arkansas, Daily Headlines: "Disgust not fear drives homophobia, say UA psychologists" (June 07 2002)
22. ^ NARTH Position Statements, National Association for Research & Therapy of Homosexuality, 27 February 2008 . Retrieved November 13, 2008.
23. ^ The Riddle Homophobia Scale from Allies Committee website, Department of Student Life, Texas A&M University
24. ^ Guindon MH, Green AG, Hanna FJ (April 2003). "Intolerance and Psychopathology: Toward a General Diagnosis for Racism, Sexism, and Homophobia". Am J Orthopsychiatry 73 (2): 167–76. doi:10.1037/0002-9432.73.2.167. PMID 12769238. http://content.apa.org/journals/ort/73/2/167.
25. ^ Treichler, Paula A. (October 1987). "AIDS, Homophobia, and Biomedical Discourse: An Epidemic of Signification". AIDS: Cultural Analysis/Cultural Activism 43 (Winter): 31–70. OCLC 17873405.
26. ^ "History of Chinese homosexuality" (2004-04-01) Shanghai Star Accessed July 3, 2009. [1]
27. ^ Hazard, John N; Columbia University. Russian Institute (1965). Unity and diversity in socialist law. [New York] Russian Institute, School of International Affairs, Columbia University. OCLC 80991633.
28. ^ Hekma, Gert; Oosterhuis, Harry; Steakley, James D (1995). Gay men and the sexual history of the political left. Harrington Park Press. ISBN 9781560230670. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32923590.
29. ^ Global Gayz. "Gay North Korea News & Reports 2005". Archived from the original on 2005-10-18. http://web.archive.org/web/20051018160332/http://globalgayz.com/northkorea-news.html. . Retrieved May 5, 2006.
30. ^ Spartacus International Gay Guide, page 1217. Bruno Gmunder Verlag, 2007.
31. ^ Ember, Carol R; Ember, Melvin (2004). Encyclopedia of sex and gender : men and women in the world's cultures. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. p. 213. ISBN 9780306477706. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/54914021.
32. ^ ^{a b} Epprecht, Marc (2004). Hungochani : the history of a dissident sexuality in southern Africa. Montreal. p. 180. ISBN 9780773527515. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/54905608.
33. ^ Under African Skies, Part I: 'Totally unacceptable to cultural norms' Kaiwright.com
34. ^ Veit-Wild, Flora; Naguschewski, Dirk (2005). Body, sexuality, and gender. Rodopi. p. 93. ISBN 9789042016262. http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN9042016264.
35. ^ Canaan Banana, president jailed in sex scandal, dies The Guardian
36. ^ ILGA: 2009 Report on State Sponsored Homophobia (2009)
37. ^ ILGA:7 countries still put people to death for same-sex acts
38. ^ Homosexuality and Islam - ReligionFacts
39. ^ ^{a b} ILGA: Lesbian and Gay Rights in the World (2009).
40. ^ Steven Eke (28 July 2005). "Iran ’must stop youth executions’". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4725959.stm. "Human Rights Watch calls on Iran to end juvenile executions, after claims that two boys were executed for being gay."
41. ^ Whitaker, Brian (18 March 2005). "Arrests at Saudi ’gay wedding’". The Observer (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2005/mar/18/saudiarabia.gayrights. "Saudi executions are not systematically reported, and officials deny that the death penalty is applied for same-sex activity alone."
42. ^ Aldrich, Robert (2006). Gay life and culture : a world history. Universe. ISBN 9780789315113. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/74909268.
43. ^ ^{a b c} Appropriate Therapeutic Responses to Sexual Orientation
44. ^ Herek, G M; Cogan, J C; Gillis, J R; Glunt, E K (1998). Correlates of Internalized Homophobia in a Community Sample of Lesbians and Gay Men. 2. 17–26. OCLC 206392016. http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/rainbow/html/JGLMApre.pdf.
45. ^ ^{a b} Adams HE, Wright LW, Lohr BA (August 1996). "Is homophobia associated with homosexual arousal?". J Abnorm Psychol 105 (3): 440–5. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.105.3.440. PMID 8772014. http://content.apa.org/journals/abn/105/3/440. Summarized in an American Psychological Association press release, August 1996: "New Study Links Homophobia with Homosexual Arousal".
46. ^ Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity — Discrimination and Conflicts from Planned Parenthood
47. ^ Index of Homophobia: W. W. Hudson and W. A. Ricketts, 1980.
48. ^ Masculinity Challenged, Men Prefer War and SUVs
49. ^ "Homophobia and Hip-Hop". PBS. http://www.pbs.org/independentlens/hiphop/gender.htm. Retrieved 2009-03-30.
50. ^ "Fans' culture hard to change"
51. ^ Nancy J. Chodorow. Statement in a public forum on homophobia by The American Psychoanalytic Foundation, 1999
52. ^ West, D.J. Homosexuality re-examined. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977. ISBN 0816608121
53. ^ Prejudice & Attitudes to Gay Men & Lesbians
54. ^ Epstein, D. (1995). "Keeping them in their place: Hetero/sexist harassment, gender and the enforcement of heterosexuality." In J. Holland&L. Adkins (Eds.), Sex, sensibility and the gendered body. London: Macmillan.
55. ^ Herek, Gregory M; Society for the Psychological Study of Lesbian and Gay Issues (1998). Stigma and sexual orientation : understanding prejudice against lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals. Psychological perspectives on lesbian and gay issues, v. 4. Sage Publications. ISBN 9780803953857. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37721264.
56. ^ Kimmel, M. (1994). Masculinity as homophobia: Fear, shame and silence in the construction of gender identity. In H. Brod & M. Kaufman (Eds.), Theorizing masculinities (pp. 119–141). Newbury Park, CA: Sage
57. ^ Kimmel, Michael S; Mahler, Matthew (2003). Adolescent Masculinity, Homophobia, and Violence: Random School Shootings, 1982–2001. 46. 1439–58. doi:10.1177/0002764203046010010. OCLC 437621566.
58. ^ Lyons, P. M., Jr.; Anthony, C. M.; Davis, K. M.; Fernandez, K.; Torres, A. N.; Marcus, D. K. (2005). "Police Judgements of Culpability and Homophobia". Appl Psychol Crim Justice 1 (1): 1–14. http://www.apcj.org/journal/index.php?mode=view&item=0.
59. ^ Fried, Joseph (2008). Democrats and Republicans--rhetoric and reality : comparing the voters in statistics and anecdotes. Algora Pub. p. 185. ISBN 0875866050. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/183179592.
60. ^ "Homophobia, racism likely companions, study shows," Jet, January 10, 1994
61. ^ Muir, Hugh (May 23, 2007). "Majority support gay equality rights, poll finds". London: Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/gayrights/story/0,,2086335,00.html. Retrieved May 4, 2010.
62. ^ After Elton: Because visibility matters, by Robert Urban, June 1, 2006 "Taking the Homophobia Out of Hip-Hop: A Progress Report" [2]
63. ^ "Beyond Beats and Rhymes" http://www.pbs.org/independentlens/hiphop/
64. ^ "Issue Brief: Gender Violence and Homophobia"
65. ^ Banerjee, Neela (January 21, 2006). "Black Churches' Attitudes Toward Gay Parishioners Is Discussed at Conference". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/21/national/21church.html. Retrieved May 4, 2010.
66. ^ "Obama takes on the black community's homophobia"
67. ^ black gay christian church and homosexuality OPERATION: REBIRTH
68. ^ "Some hateful, radical ministers -- white evangelicals -- are acceptable" [3]
69. ^ "ABC repeatedly noted controversial comments by Obama's "allies," but has yet to report comments by McCain endorsers" [4]
70. ^ Thomas, Katie (March 21, 2008). "When Tradition and Taunts Collide: Gay Hockey Fans Criticize Garden". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/21/sports/hockey/21fans.html?em&ex=1206244800&en=5c641ada05d2c0a8&ei=5087%0A. Retrieved May 4, 2010.
71. ^ "Love and Basketball: Homophobia in Sports"
72. ^ Homophobia in professional sports - Features]
73. ^ "Gay and lesbian sports site, for sports enthusiasts and athletes worldwide". Gay Sports. http://www.gaysports.com/page.cfm?Sectionid=1&typeofsite=storydetail&ID=1067&storyset=yes. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
74. ^ Archive 2008, gaybaseballdays.com
75. ^ STATEMENT OF THE HOLY SEE DELEGATION AT THE 63rd SESSION OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF THE UNITED NATIONS ON THE DECLARATION ON HUMAN RIGHTS, SEXUAL ORIENTATION AND GENDER IDENTITY (18 DECEMBER 2008)
76. ^ [5]
77. ^ "Towards an international Day against Homophobia", April 10, 2004
78. ^ "1st Annual International Day Against Homophobia to be Celebrated in over 40 Countries on May 17", May 12, 2005
79. ^ ""Campaigns against Homophobia in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, and Mexico". Pan American Health Organization. http://new.paho.org/hq/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=346&Itemid=355.
80. ^ Blumenfeld, Warren J (1992). Homophobia : how we all pay the price. Beacon Press. ISBN 9780807079195. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/24544734.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Homophobia

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Homophobia

Look up Homophobia in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• Homophobia at the Open Directory Project
• Sexual Prejudice: Understanding Homophobia and Heterosexism
• The Homophobic Imagination - an essay by Rictor Norton and Louie Crew
• The Rockway Institute for LGBT research in the public interest at Alliant International University
• PBS - "Frontline's" homophobia quiz
• European Parliament - resolution on homophobia in Europe
• An analysis of Campaigns against Homophobia in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, and Mexico
• Homophobia Is the Problem, Not Gays-- photos from anti-homophobia event By Irina Echarry, Havana Times May 19, 2009

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